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May. 26th, 2007 @ 09:44 pm
» reflexes
    1. Foot
    2. Stroke Inner Sole
      1. Toes curl around ("grasp") examiner's finger
    3. Stroke Outer Sole (Babinski)
      1. Toes spread, great toe dorsiflexion

     

     

    1. Doll's Eyes
    2. Give one forefinger to each hand - baby grasps both
      1. Pull baby to sitting with each forefinger
    3. Eyes open on coming to sitting (Like a Doll's)
      1. Head initially lags
      2. Baby uses shoulders to right head position

     

     

    1. Walking Reflex
    2. Hold baby up with one hand across chest
    3. As feet touch ground, baby makes walking motion

     

     

    1. Protective Reflex
    2. Soft cloth is placed over the babies eyes and nose
    3. Baby arches head and turns head side to side
    4. Brings both hands to face to swipe cloth away

     

     

    1. Rooting Reflex
    2. Touch newborn on either side of cheek
    3. Baby turns to find breast
    4. Sucking mechanism on finger is divided into 3 steps
      1. Front of Tongue laps on finger
      2. Back of Tongue massages middle of the finger
      3. Esophagus pulls on tip of finger

     

     

    1. Tonic Neck (Fencing) Reflex
    2. If the Babies' head is rotated leftward
      1. The left arm (face side) stretches into extension
      2. The right arm flexes up above head
    3. Opposite reaction if head is rotated rightward

     

     

    1. Moro Reflex (Startle Reflex)
    2. Hold supine infant by arms a few inches above bed
      1. Gently drop infant back to elicit startle
    3. Baby throws Arms out in extension and baby grimaces

     

     

    1. Hand-to-Mouth (Babkin) Reflex
    2. Stroke newborns cheek or put finger in babies palm
    3. Baby will bring his fist to mouth and suck a finger

     

     

    1. Swimmer's (Gallant) Response
    2. Hold baby prone while supporting belly with hand
      1. Stroke along one side of babies' spine
    3. Baby flexes whole body toward the stroked side

     

     

    1. Crawling Reflex
    2. Newborn placed on abdomen
    3. Baby flexes legs under him and starts to crawl

    • Mar. 8th, 2007 @ 09:36 pm
    » Commonwealth

    The 2010 Commonwealth Games are going to be held in Delhi, India. The city has a population of over 15 million, compared to (2006 games hosts) Melbourne's 3.7 million and Greater Manchester's 2.5 million population at the 2002 games.

    In Jamaica on November 13, 2003 Delhi received 46 votes compared with 22 for Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, in a vote of the Commonwealth Games Federation.

    This will be the biggest multi-sport event conducted in the city. Delhi has previously played host to the Asian Games in 1951 and 1982.

    In January 2005, the Commonwealth Games Federation vice-president Randhir Singh said that Delhi was behind schedule in forming an organising committee. "This inordinate delay by the Sports Ministry could cost India the games", he said.

    India will be only the third developing country to host the event after Jamaica in 1966 and Malaysia in 1998. This is only the second time the event will be held in Asia.
    The commonwealth is NOT a political union of any sort, and it does not allow exercise of any power over the affairs of the organization's members. As it looks like, the organization is not made to influence any country economically or politically or to practice the strength of one country over the other but it is meant to establish and strengthen a friendly relationship between the member countries to help each others in futureThe Commonwealth is primarily an organization in which countries with diverse economic backgrounds have an opportunity for close and equal interaction. The primary activities of the Commonwealth are designed to create an atmosphere of economic co-operation between member nations, as well as the promotion of democracy, human rights, and good governance in those nations. The Melbourne 2006 Queen’s Baton Relay was the world’s longest, most inclusive relay – traveling to all 71 nations of the Commonwealth in a year and a day. The design and technological features of the baton that traveled this epic journey reflect the relay’s efforts to showcase the diversity of the Commonwealth and unite its communities in celebration of the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games.

    The elegant, curved form of the baton took its inspiration from the physical form of athletes arching forward as they strive for success. The 71 larger lights on the front of the baton indicated the 71 nations of the Commonwealth that the Queen’s Baton visited on its journey to the Games. These progressively lit up as the baton arrived in each Commonwealth country, symbolizing the gathering of the nations at the four-yearly festival of sport and culture

    Opening ceremony traditions

    • From 1930 through 1950, the parade of nations was led by a single flagbearer carrying the Union Jack, symbolising Britain's leading role in the British Empire.
    • Since 1958, there has been a relay of athletes carrying a baton from Buckingham Palace to the Opening Ceremony. This baton has within it the Queen's Message of Greeting to the athletes. The baton's final bearer is usually a famous sporting personage of the host nation.
    • All other nations march in English alphabetical order, except that the first nation marching in the Parade of Athletes is the host nation of the previous games, and the host nation of the current games marches last. In 2006 countries marched in alphabetical order in geographical regions.
    • Three national flags fly from the stadium on the poles that are used for medal ceremonies: Previous host nation, Current host nation, Next host nation.
    • The Military is more active in the Opening Ceremony than in the Olympic Games. This is to honour the British Military traditions of the Old Empire

    Mar. 2nd, 2007 @ 09:33 pm
    » cfl

    A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also known as a compact fluorescent light bulb or an energy saving lightbulb, is a type of fluorescent lamp that fits into a standard light bulb socket or plugs into a small lighting fixture.

    In comparison to incandescent light bulbs, CFLs have a longer rated life and use less electricity. CFLs may save enough money in electricity costs to make up for their higher initial price within about 500 hours of use.The most important advance in fluorescent lamp technology (including in CFLs) has been the gradual replacement of magnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts: This has removed most of the flickering and slow starting traditionally associated with fluorescent lighting

    CFLs are produced for both AC input and DC input. DC CFLs are popular for use in recreational vehicles and off-the-grid housing. Poor families in developing countries are using DC CFLs (with car batteries and small solar panels) to replace kerosene lanterns.CFLs use about a quarter of the power of incandescent bulbsEnvironmental issues

    Since CFLs use about a quarter of the energy of incandescent bulbs they are a key part of efforts to fight pollution.

    However, CFLs contain trace amounts of mercury. The amount is not large enough to pose a hazard to users (it is about 1/5 the amount in a typical digital watch battery), but it does become a concern at landfills and trash incinerators where the mercury from many bulbs can escape and contribute to air and water pollutionParts

    There are two main parts in a CFL: the gas-filled tube (also called bulb or burner) and the magnetic or electronic ballast. Electrical energy in the form of an electrical current from the ballast flows through the gas, causing it to emit ultraviolet light. The ultraviolet light then excites a white phosphor coating on the inside of the tube. This coating emits visible light. CFLs that flicker when they start have magnetic ballasts; CFLs with electronic ballasts are now much more common
    Other CFL technologies

    Another type of fluorescent lamp is the electrodeless fluorescent, known as a radiofluorescent lamp or fluorescent induction lamp. Unlike virtually all other conventional lamps that have hardwired electrical connections to transfer energy to the lamp core, the electrodeless fluorescent accomplishes this solely by electromagnetic induction. The induction is effected by means of a wire-wound ferrite core that projects upward into the bulb encased in an inverted U-shaped glass cover. The wire is energized with high frequency electricity often 2.65 or 13.6 MHz; this ionizes the mercury vapor, exciting the phosphor & producing light.

    Another variation on existing CFL technologies are bulbs with an external nano-particle coating of titanium dioxide. Titanium dioxide is a photocatalyst becoming ionized when exposed to UV light produced by the CFL, thereby capable of converting oxygen to ozone, water to hydroxyl radicals, which neutralizes odors and kills bacteria, viruses, and mold spores.

    The Cold Cathode Fluorescent Light (CCFL) is one of the newest forms of CFL. CCFLs use electrodes without a filament. The voltage of CCFL lamps is about 5 times higher than CFL lamps and the current is about 10 times lower. CCFL lamps have a diameter of about 3 millimeters. The lifetime of CCFL lamps is about 50,000 hours. The lumens per watt is about half of CFL lamps.

    Initially CCFL was used for thin monitors and backlighting, but now it is also manufactured for use as a lightbulb. Since the efficacy (watt/lumen) is actually lower than a compact fluorescent light, it is actually not as efficient as a CFL. Its advantages are that it is (1) instant-on, like an incandescent, (2) compatible with timers, photocells, and dimmers, and (3) has an amazingly long life of approximately 50,000 hours. CCFL are a convenient transition-technology for those who are not comfortable with the short lag-time associated with the initial lighting of Compact Fluorescents. They are also an effective and efficient replacement for lighting that is turned on and off frequently with little extended use (e.g. a half-bath or closet).

    Australia is to phase out the use of incandescent light bulbs by 2010, becoming the first country in the world to ban them. The move will reduce carbon emissions by 800,000 tonnes a year by 2012

    Operation

    Incandescent light bulbs consist of a glass enclosure (the "envelope, or bulb") which the bulb with an inert gas reduces evaporation of the filament and reduces the required strength of the glass. Inside of the bulb is a filament of tungsten wire, through which an electrical current is passed. The current heats the filament to an extremely high temperature (typically 2000 to 6000 K depending on the filament type, shape, and amount of current passed through). Heated electrons in the continuous energy bands of tungsten become excited and then transition to lower energy states of the solid. As they do, they release thermally equilibrated photons which have a black body spectrum. This spectrum, unlike those caused by non-equilibrium atomic or molecular transitions such as in a mercury-vapor lamp, is continuous, typically peaking in the visible light but also containing significant energy in the near-infrared wavelengths.

    Incandescent light bulbs usually also contain a glass mount on the inside, which supports the filament and allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without gas/air leaks. Many arrangements of electrical contacts are used, such as a screw base (one or more contacts at the tip, one at the shell), a bayonet base (one or more contacts on the base, shell used as a contact or only used as a mechanical support), and for some lamps an electrical contact at either end of a tubular lamp. Contacts in the lamp socket allow the electrical current to pass through the filament. Power ratings range from about 0.1 watt to about 10,000 watts, and up. To improve the efficacy of the lamp, the filament usually consists of coils of fine wire, also known as a 'coiled coil'. For a 60 watt 120-volt lamp, the length of the filament is usually 6.5 feet or 2 meters.

    One of the smallest problems of the standard electric light bulb is evaporation of the filament. The largest problem is that the inevitable variations in resistivity along the filament cause non-uniform heating, with "hot spots" forming at points of higher resistivity. Thinning by evaporation increases resistivity. But hot spots evaporate faster, increasing their resistivity faster—a positive feedback which ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy-looking filament. Irving Langmuir suggested that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation and still avoid combustion, and so ordinary incandescent light bulbs are now filled with nitrogen, argon, or krypton. However, a filament breaking in a gas-filled bulb can pull an electric arc, which may spread between the terminals and cause very heavy current flow; intentionally thin lead-in wires or more elaborate protection devices are therefore often used as fuses built into the light bulb. [2]

    During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more-efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade-off between efficiency and longevity. The trade-off is typically set to provide a lifetime of 750-1000 hours for ordinary lamps. See the section below, Voltage, light output, and lifetime, for a discussion of the trade-offs involved in setting a lamp life specification.

    In a conventional (not halogen) lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried in the thermal convection currents of the gas, depositing preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope and blackening just that portion of the envelope.

    Some old, high-powered lamps used in theater, projection, searchlight, and lighthouse service with heavy, sturdy filaments contained loose tungsten powder within the envelope. From time to time, the operator would remove the bulb and shake it, allowing the tungsten powder to scrub off most of the tungsten that had condensed on the interior of the envelope, removing the blackening and brightening the lamp again.

    When a light bulb envelope breaks while the lamp is on or if air leaks into the envelope, the hot tungsten filament reacts with the air, yielding an aerosol of brown tungsten nitride, brown tungsten dioxide, violet-blue tungsten pentoxide, and yellow tungsten trioxide which then deposits on the nearby surfaces or the bulb interior. [3]

     


    Feb. 23rd, 2007 @ 09:03 pm
    » Clash of Civilizations

    The Clash of Civilizations is a controversial theory that people's cultural/religious identity will be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world. Popularized by Samuel P. Huntington, it was originally formulated in an article titled "The Clash of Civilizations?" [1] [2] published in the academic journal Foreign Affairs in 1993, as a reaction to Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man. The term itself was first used by Bernard Lewis in an article in the September 1990 issue of The Atlantic Monthly titled The Roots of Muslim Rage.[3] The clash was also referred to in the March 1992 Atlantic Monthly article, and the 1995 book, entitled Jihad vs. McWorld by Benjamin R. Barber, which talked about the clash of Islamic and Western cultures, summed up as the conflict between tribalism and globalism.[4] Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. The theory gained widespread attention after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.

    Recent issues

    The following list includes recent conflicts between states and groups belonging to different civilizations. It does not mean that all those conflicts were caused by the civilizational cleavages.

     China et al. & the West

    • Chinese response to the Hainan Island incident: Detention of American pilots by China.
    • North Korean nuclear crisis: "Sinic" North Korea asserting nuclear weapons against predominantly "Western" and "Japanese" reactions.
    • Chinese transfer of missile and nuclear technologies to "Islamic" Pakistan. 

     Hindu & Islam

            Kashmir conflict and Kargil War in Kashmir: clash between "Hindu" India and "Islamic" Pakistan over Kashmir.

     Islam & Orthodox

     Islam & the West

    Orthodox & the West

    A Study of History is the 12-volume magnum opus of British historian Arnold J. Toynbee, finished in 1961. It is the longest written work ever composed in the English language[citation needed]. In it he traces the birth, growth and decay of some 21 to 23 major civilizations in the world

    The Alliance of Civilizations is a United Nations Secretary-General initiative intended to galvanize collective action across diverse societies in order to combat extremism, and overcome cultural and social barriers between mainly the Western and predominantly Muslim worlds

    Francis Fukuyama, an American political economist and author of The End of History and the Last Man.

    Proposed by Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero at the 59th General Assembly of the United Nations and co-sponsored by Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, the initiative aims to produce actionable, time-bound recommendations by the end of 2006 for UN member states to adopt.

    Multiculturalism is an ideology advocating that society should consist of, or at least allow and include, distinct cultural groups, with equal status. Multiculturalism is a term often used to describe the cultural and ethnic diversity of a nation and recognises that this rich diversity is a positive force in furthering society’s nationhood or cultural identity. Multiculturalism contrasts with the monoculturalism which was historically the norm in the nation-state. (Monoculturalism implies a normative cultural unity, 'monocultural' can be a descriptive term for pre-existing homogeneity). The term multiculturalism is almost always applied to distinct cultures of immigrant groups in developed countries, not to the presence of indigenous peoples.


    Feb. 20th, 2007 @ 09:05 pm
    » death penalty

    Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is the execution of a convicted criminal by the state as punishment for crimes known as capital crimes or capital offences. Historically, the execution of criminals and political opponents was used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime and to suppress political dissent. Among democratic countries around the world, most European (all except Belarus), Latin American, many Pacific Area states (including Australia, New Zealand and Timor Leste) and Canada have abolished capital punishment, while the United States, Guatemala, and most of the Caribbean as well as some democracies in Asia (e.g., Japan and India) and Africa (e.g., Botswana and Zambia) retain it. Among nondemocratic countries, the use of the death penalty is common but not universal.

    In most places that practice capital punishment today, the death penalty is reserved as a punishment for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries with a Muslim majority, sexual crimes, including adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy from Islam, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many retentionist countries (countries that use the death penalty), drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. [1]

    Capital punishment is a contentious issue. Supporters of capital punishment argue that it deters crime, prevents recidivism, and is an appropriate punishment for the crime of murder. Opponents of capital punishment argue that it does not deter criminals more than life imprisonment, violates human rights, leads to executions of some who are wrongfully convicted, and discriminates against minorities and the poor.

    The latest country to abolish the death penalty for all crimes was the Philippines in June 2006.


    Feb. 19th, 2007 @ 09:03 pm
    » Bureau of Indian Standards

    The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), the National Standards Body of India is involved in the development of technical standards (popularly known as Indian Standards), product quality and management system certifications and consumer affairs. It resolves to be the leader in all matters concerning Standardization, Certification and Quality.

    In order to attain this, the Bureau strives:

    • To provide efficient timely service.
    • To satify the customers' needs for quality of goods and services.
    • To work and act in such a way that each task, performed as individuals or as corporate entity, leads to excellence and enhances the credibility and image of the Organization.
    • BIS would achieve these objectives by working in close cooperation with all concerned organizations and by adopting appropriate management systems, motivating and ensuring active participation of all the employees.

    Functions

    1. Formulation of Indian Standards for products and services by bringing together and coordinating various interest groups like manufacturers, consumers, technical experts, testing personnel and others interested. The standards so prepared are known as Indian Standards (IS) and are considered as legal documents. The first Indian Standard formulated was for the National Flag (IS 1). So far BIS has published about 18000 Indian Standards covering various products, codes of practices, terminology, etc for various industrial and economic sectors. The Indian Standards are used not only by the industry but also by the Government, students, consumers and regulatory authorities. The standards are priced publications and are available from all the offices of the Bureau.

    2. Certification Schemes

    • Product Certification Scheme is a scheme whereby manufacturers of products interested in producing their products as per relevant Indian Standards are permitted to use the Standard Mark of the Bureau (the popular ISI mark) on their products after obtaining a licence from the Bureau. The pre-requisites for obtaining a licence are that the manufacturer has the necessary manufacturing and testing facility for the product and agrees to follow the quality assurance scheme of the Bureau in addition to payment of necessary fees as stipulated. The licence is initially granted for a period of one year which is renewable for subsequent periods based on satisfactory operation of the scheme. The scheme is voluntary in nature for most products. However, the government has insisted on ISI marking of about 136 products which affect the health and safety of consumers or are products of mass consumption like LPG Cylinders, Food Colours and Additives, Cement, Packaged Drinking Water, etc.
    • Certification for Indian Importers is a similar scheme operated for importers who are desirous of using the standard mark (ISI Mark) on imported products. The Government of India has also stipulated that some of the products be imported into the country only after approval of BIS is obtained.
    • Certification for Foreign Manufacturers is another scheme again operated on the same lines whereby manufacturers located in foreign countries are permitted to use the Standard (ISI) mark on their products.
    • ECO MARK BIS grants licences to environment friendly products under this special scheme. For obtaining the ECO Mark Certificate the products should conform to additional requirements specified in the Indian Standards.
    • IECEE & IECQ Certification BIS is a National Certifying Body (issuing and recognizing) under the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) System for Conformity Testing and Certification of Electrical Equipment (IECEE). The product categories for which BIS has IECEE acceptance are Cables and Chords, Capacitors as components, Low voltage high power switching equipment, Installation of protective equipment and Electronics entertainment. BIS is also the National Authorised Institution and the National Standards Organization under the IEC System of Quality Assessment of Electronic Components (IECQ).

    3. Management System Certifications : Under the Management System Certifications, the Bureau operates the following four Certification Schemes:

    • Quality Management System Certification (ISO 9001 Certification) : The Bureau operates the Quality Management System Certification for organizations based on the ISO 9001:2000 Standard published by the International Organization of Standardization (ISO). Being a member of ISO the standards of ISO can be adopted in-toto by the Bureau and can be published as IS/ISO standards. Accordingly, the ISO 9000 series of standards have been adopted and are published as the IS/ISO 9000 series of standards. The certification is for the systems implemented by an organization and not for the product or service provided by them. The Standard requires implementation of systems as required by the Standard in all relevant activities and functions within an organization that goes to satisfy the needs of customers. The standard also requires that the organization shows continual improvement by defining specific objectives and measuring and monitoring the same in its activities. The certification being operated by the Bureau is accredited by the Dutch Council of Accreditation - Raad voor Accreditatie (RvA), The HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) programme for the food industry which envisages identification and control of hazards-physical, chemical or biological-can also be covered in QMS Certification Scheme if so desired by any organization.
    • Environment Management System Certification : The certification scheme is based on the ISO 14001 standard which as in the case of ISO 9000 standards has been adopted as IS/ISO 14001. The thrust of the standard is ensuring that organizations meet the legal requirements of environmental protection and has systems whereby they control and improve upon measures that will lead to a healthier environment.
    • Information Security Management System Certification (ISMS based on ISO/IEC 27001)
    • Food Safety Management System Certification (FSMS based on ISO 22000)

    4. Hall Marking of Gold Jewellery : India is the largest consumer of gold and the purchaser of gold jewellery is the common consumer. The Hall Marking of Gold Jewellery indented to ensure that the consumer gets gold jewellery of the purity declared was launched on 11 April 2000 at the behest of the Government of India. The certification of purity of Gold Jewellery is done in accordance with the Indian Standard IS:1417 (Specification for Gold and Gold Alloys, Jewellery/Artefacts - Fineness and Marking). The Standard is equivalent to the International Standard ISO 9202:1991-Jewellery – Fineness of Precious Metal Alloys. The scheme is voluntary in nature.

    5. Other Actitvities of the Bureau include

    • Operation of Rajiv Gandhi National Quality Award instituted in 1991, with a view to encouraging Indian manufacturing and service organizations to strive for excellence and giving special recognition to those who are considered to be the leaders of quality movement in India. This award is intended to generate interest and involvement of Indian Industry in quality programmes, drive our products and services to higher levels of quality and equip our Industry to meet the challenges of domestic and International markets.
    • WTO-TBT Enquiry Point : The Government of India, Ministry of Commerce has designated BIS as the enquiry point under the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade of the World Trade Organization (WTO). According to the Agreement, the Enquiry Point issues notifications on proposed technical regulations and certification systems in India to WTO, Geneva.

    BIS is engaged in formulation of Indian Standards for the following sectors :

    • Basic & Production Engineering
    • Chemicals
    • Civil Engineering
    • Electronics and Information Technology
    • Electrotechnical
    • Food and Agriculture
    • Mechanical Engineering
    • Management and Systems
    • Medical Equipment and Hospital Planning
    • Metallurgical Engineering
    • Petroleum Coal and Related Products
    • Transport Engineering
    • Textile
    • Water Resources

    Each of these sectors has a Division Council to oversee and supervise its work.

    BIS publishes detailed Work Programme for each of the 14 Division Councils once in a year on 1 April. The Work Programme, besides giving scope of Division Council and Sectional Committees, contains committeewise position of standards published and draft standards (like preliminary, wide circulation and finalized draft standards) at different stages of preparation. The copies of Work Programme (and also of wide circulation drafts for comments during the wide circulation period) can be obtained from the Director of the concerned Technical Divisions, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

    The Work Programme is updated through Standards Monthly Additions (SMA), a monthly publication which contains information on standards published (new and revised), dual no. standards, amendments to standards, draft standards for comments, standards withdrawn and standards proposed for withdrawal up to 15th of the preceding month.

    Special attention is given to multidisciplinary areas such as energy conservation, environmental protection, rural development and safety. So far over 17,000 standards have been formulated in different technology areas. The standards formulated fall in the following categories:

    • Product Specifications
    • Methods of Test
    • Codes of Practices, Guidelines, etc
    • Terminologies, Glossaries, etc
    • Basic Standards

    ISO 9000 family

    ISO 9000 includes the following standards:

    • ISO 9000:2005, Quality management systems - Fundamentals and vocabulary. covers the basics of what quality management systems are and also contains the core language of the ISO 9000 series of standards.
    • ISO 9001:2000 Quality management systems - Requirements is intended for use in any organization which designs, develops, manufactures, installs and/or services any product or provides any form of service. It provides a number of requirements which an organization needs to fulfill if it is to achieve customer satisfaction through consistent products and services which meet customer expectations. This is the only implementation for which third-party auditors may grant certifications.
    • ISO 9004:2000 Quality management systems - Guidelines for performance improvements. covers continual improvement. This gives you advice on what you could do to enhance a mature system. This standard very specifically states that it is not intended as a guide to implementation.
  • ISO 10006 Quality management – Guidelines to quality in project management
  • ISO 10007 Quality management – Guidelines for configuration management 

    The ISO 14000 environmental management standards exist to help organizations minimize how their operations negatively affect the environment (cause adverse changes to air, water, or land), comply with applicable laws, regulations, and other environmentally oriented requirements, and continually improve on the above.

    ISO 14000 is similar to ISO 9000 quality management in that both pertain to the process (the comprehensive outcome of how a product is produced) rather than to the product itself. As with ISO 9000, certification is performed by third-party organizations rather than being awarded by ISO directly. The ISO 19011 audit standard applies when auditing for both 9000 and 14000 compliance at once.

    The material included in this family of specifications is very broad. The major parts of ISO 14000 are:

    • ISO 14001 is the standard against which organizations are assessed. ISO 14001 is generic and flexible enough to apply to any organization producing any product or service anywhere in the world.
    • ISO 14004 is a guidance document that explains the 14001 requirements in more detail. These present a structured approach to setting environmental objectives and targets and to establishing and monitoring operational controls.

    These are further explicated by the following:

    • ISO 14040 discusses pre-production planning and environment goal setting.
    • ISO 14020 covers labels and declarations.
    • ISO 14030 discusses post-production environmental assessment.
    • ISO 14062 discusses making improvements to environmental impact goals.
    • ISO 14063 is an addendum to 14020, discussing further communications on environmental impact.
    • ISO 19011 which specifies one audit protocol for both 14000 and 9000 series standards together. This replaces ISO 14011 meta-evaluation—how to tell if your intended regulatory tools worked. 19011 is now the only recommended way to determine this.

    ISO 14001 is an internationally accepted specification for an environmental management system. It specifies requirements for establishing an environmental policy, determining environmental aspects and impacts of products/activities/services, planning environmental objectives and measurable targets, implementation and operation of programs to meet objectives and targets, checking and corrective action, and management review.

    ISO 19011 is an international standard that sets forth guidelines for:

    It is developed by the International Organization for Standardization.

    ISO/IEC 27000 is the number reserved for a new international standard, which currently has the provisional title: "Information technology - Security techniques - Information security management systems - Fundamentals and vocabulary" The standard is known informally as "ISO 27000".

    The standard is being developed by the International Organization for Standardization.

    ISO 27000 will contain fundamental concepts and vocabulary for Information Security Management Systems (ISMS), defining and explaining the specialist terms used throughout the ISO 27000 series of ISMS standards. The scope is “to specify the fundamental principles, concepts and vocabulary for the ISO/IEC 27000 (information security management system) series of documents


    • Feb. 18th, 2007 @ 04:17 pm
    » inflation

    In contemporary economic discussion, the word “inflation” usually refers to a general rise in prices. (This use arose from an earlier meaning of an increase in the money supply, which use is still current in some circles.)

    The prevailing view in mainstream economics is that inflation is caused by the interaction of the supply of money with output and interest rates. In general, mainstream economists divide into two camps: those who believe that monetary effects dominate all others in setting the rate of inflation, or broadly speaking, monetarists, and those who believe that the interaction of money, interest and output dominate over other effects, or broadly speaking Keynesians. Other theories, such as those of the Austrian school of economics, believe that an inflation of the general price level and of specific prices is a result from an increase in the supply of money by central banking authorities.

    Related terms include: deflation, a general falling level of prices, disinflation, the reduction of the rate of inflation, hyper-inflation, an out of control inflationary spiral, stagflation, a combination of inflation and poor economic growth, and reflation, which is an attempt to raise prices to counteract deflationary pressures

    Commonly used measures of inflation

    Examples of common measures of inflation include:

    • consumer price indices (CPIs) which measure the price of a selection of goods purchased by a "typical consumer".
    • Cost-of-living indices (COLA) which often adjust fixed incomes and contractual incomes based on measures of goods and services price changes
    • producer price indices (PPIs) which measure the price received by a producer. This differs from the CPI in that price subsidization, profits, and taxes may cause the amount received by the producer to differ from what the consumer paid. There is also typically a delay between an increase in the PPI and any resulting increase in the CPI. Producer price inflation measures the pressure being put on producers by the costs of their raw materials. This could be "passed on" as consumer inflation, or it could be absorbed by profits, or offset by increasing productivity.
    • wholesale price indices, which measure the change in price of a selection of goods at wholesale, prior to retail mark ups and sales taxes. These are very similar to the Producer Price Indexes.
    • commodity price indices, which measure the change in price of a selection of commodities. In the present commodity price indexes are weighted by the relative importance of the components to the "all in" cost of an employee.
    • GDP Deflators use an entire economy as the basket of goods and services, rather than some particular subset. The term "deflator" in this case means the percentage to reduce current prices to get the equivalent price in a previous period. The US Commerce Department publishes a deflator series for the US economy.
    • Purchasing Power Parity adjusts for the inflationary effects of goods being non-tradeable between two or more economies, for example land prices, to compare standard of living purchasing power between two economies. PPP adjustments are, therefore, measuring inflation in location, rather than in time. Many inflation series numbers are also published for particular geographic regions. For example, the US Bureau of Labor Statistics breaks down CPI-U calculations down to different regions of the US.
    • Historical Inflation Before collecting consistent econometric data became standard for governments, and for the purpose of comparing absolute, rather than relative standards of living, various economists have calculated imputed inflation figures. Most inflation data before the early 20th century is imputed based on the known costs of goods, rather than compiled at the time. It is also used to adjust for the differences in real standard of living for the presence of technology. This is equivalent to not adjusting the composition of baskets over time

    However, in general, inflation rates above the nominal amounts required to give monetary freedom, and investing incentive, are regarded as negative, particularly because in current economic theory, inflation begets further inflationary expectations.

    • Increasing uncertainty may discourage investment and saving.
    • Redistribution
      • It will redistribute income from those on fixed incomes, such as pensioners, and shifts it to those who draw a variable income, for example from wages and profits which may keep pace with inflation.
      • Similarly it will redistribute wealth from those who lend a fixed amount of money to those who borrow. For example, where the government is a net debtor, as is usually the case, it will reduce this debt redistributing money towards the government. Thus inflation is sometimes viewed as similar to a hidden tax.
    • International trade: If the rate of inflation is higher than that abroad, a fixed exchange rate will be undermined through a weakening balance of trade.
    • Shoe leather costs: Because the value of cash is eroded by inflation, people will tend to hold less cash during times of inflation. This imposes real costs, for example in more frequent trips to the bank. (The term is a humorous reference to the cost of replacing shoe leather worn out when walking to the bank.)
    • Menu costs: Firms must change their prices more frequently, which imposes costs, for example with restaurants having to reprint menus.
    • Relative Price Distortions: Firms do not generally synchronize adjustment in prices. If there is higher inflation, firms that do not adjust their prices will have much lower prices relative to firms that do adjust them. This will distort economic decisions, since relative prices will not be reflecting relative scarcity of different goods.
    • Hyperinflation: if inflation gets totally out of control (in the upward direction), it can grossly interfere with the normal workings of the economy, hurting its ability to supply.
    • Inflation tax when a government can improve its net financial position by allowing inflation, then this represents a tax on certain holders of currency. Governments may decide to use this "stealth tax" in order to avoid hard fiscal decisions to cut expenditures, raise taxes, or confront government unions with greater efficiency.
    • Bracket Creep is related to the inflation tax. By allowing inflation to move upwards, certain sticky aspects of the tax code are met by more and more people. Commonly income tax brackets, where the next dollar of income is taxed at a higher rate than previous dollars. Governments that allow inflation to "bump" people over these thresholds are, in effect, allowing a tax increase because the same real purchasing power is being taxed at a higher rate.
    • Corporate Return on Investment is effected by generating inflation. Should a firm increase productivity, this would tend to reduce the prices as per supply/demand ratios. Inflation enables firms to reap the reward from productivity investment instead of benefitting the consumer as happened prior to 1913 in the US.

    As noted, some economists see moderate inflation as a benefit; some business executives see mild inflation as "greasing the wheels of commerce." A very few economists have advocated reducing inflation to zero as a monetary policy goal - particularly in the late 1990s at the end of a long disinflationary period, when the policy seemed within reach

    Causes of inflation

    There are different schools of thought as to what causes inflation. Most can be divided into two broad areas: quality theories of inflation, and quantity theories of inflation. Many theories of inflation combine the two. The quality theory of inflation rests on the expectation of a buyer accepting currency to be able to exchange that currency at a later time for goods that are desirable as a buyer. The quantity theory of inflation rests on the equation of the money supply, its velocity, and exchanges. Adam Smith and David Hume proposed a quantity theory of inflation for money, and a quality theory of inflation for production.


    Keynesian economic theory proposes that money is transparent to real forces in the economy, and that visible inflation is the result of pressures in the economy expressing themselves in prices.

    There are three major types of inflation, as part of what Robert J. Gordon calls the "triangle model":

    • Demand pull inflation -- inflation from high demand for goods and low unemployment.
    • Cost push inflation -- presently termed "supply shock inflation," from an event such as a sudden decrease in the supply of oil, which would increase oil prices. Producers for whom oil is a part of their costs could then pass this on to consumers in the form of increased prices.
    • Built-in inflation -- induced by adaptive expectations, often linked to the "price/wage spiral" because it involves workers trying to keep their wages up with prices and then employers passing higher costs on to consumers as higher prices as part of a "vicious circle." Built-in inflation reflects events in the past, and so might be seen as hangover inflation.

    A major demand-pull theory centers on the supply of money: inflation may be caused by an increase in the quantity of money in circulation relative to the ability of the economy to supply (its potential output). This has been seen most graphically when governments have financed spending in a crisis by printing money excessively (from war or civil war conditions), often leading to hyperinflation where prices rise at extremely high rates (such as, doubling every month). Another cause can be a rapid decline in the demand for money as happened in Europe during the black plague.

    The money supply is also thought to play a major role in determining levels of more moderate levels of inflation, although there are differences of opinion on how important it is. For example, Monetarist economists believe that the link is very strong; Keynesian economics by contrast typically emphasize the role of aggregate demand in the economy rather than the money supply in determining inflation. That is, for Keynesians, the money supply is only one determinant of aggregate demand.

    A fundamental concept in such Keynesian analysis is the relationship between inflation and unemployment, called the Phillips curve. This model suggested that price stability was a trade off against employment. Therefore some level of inflation could be considered desirable in order to minimize unemployment. The Philips curve model described the U.S. experience well in the 1960s but failed to describe the combination of rising inflation and economic stagnation (sometimes referred to as stagflation) experienced in the 1970s.

    Thus, modern macroeconomics describes inflation using a Phillips curve that shifts (so the trade-off between inflation and unemployment changes) because of such matters as supply shocks and inflation becoming built into the normal workings of the economy. The former refers to such events as the oil shocks of the 1970s, while the latter refers to the price/wage spiral and inflationary expectations implying that the economy "normally" suffers from inflation. Thus, the Phillips curve represents only the demand-pull component of the triangle model.

    Another Keynesian concept is the potential output (sometimes called the "natural gross domestic product"), a level of GDP where the economy is at its optimal level of production, given institutional and natural constraints. (This level of output corresponds to the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment, NAIRU, or the "natural" rate of unemployment or the full-employment unemployment rate.) If GDP exceeds its potential (and unemployment is below the NAIRU), the theory says that inflation will accelerate as suppliers increase their prices and built-in inflation worsens. If GDP falls below its potential level (and unemployment is above the NAIRU), inflation will decelerate as suppliers attempt to fill excess capacity, cutting prices and undermining built-in inflation.

    However, one problem with this theory for policy-making purposes is that the exact level of potential output (and of the NAIRU) is generally unknown and tends to change over time. Inflation also seems to act in an asymmetric way, rising more quickly than it falls. Worse, it can change because of policy: for example, high unemployment under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the UK may have led to a rise in the NAIRU (and a fall in potential) because many of the unemployed found themselves as structurally unemployed (also see unemployment), unable to find jobs that fit their skills in the British economy. A rise in structural unemployment implies that a smaller percentage of the labor force can find jobs at the NAIRU, where the economy avoids crossing the threshold into the realm of accelerating inflation.


    Feb. 18th, 2007 @ 04:09 pm
    » (No Subject)

    The Indian Air Force (भारतीय वायु सेना : Bharatiya Vayu Sena) is the air-arm of the Armed Forces of India and has the prime responsibility of conducting air-based warfare and securing Indian airspace. It was established on October 8, 1932 as the Indian Air Force. It was granted the prefix "Royal" in 1945 in recognition of its services during the Second World War. The prefix Royal was dropped after India became a Republic in 1950. It is the fourth largest air force in the world.

    Motto: Nabha Sparsham Deeptam
    Touch the Sky with Glory
    Head Quarters
    New Delhi
    History and Traditions
    History of the Indian Air Force
    Air Force Day: October 08
    Aircraft
    Aircraft of the IAF
    Personnel
    Marshal of the Indian Air Force
    Chief of the Air Staff
    Indian Air Force ranks and insignia

    Rank structure

    The head of the Indian Air Force is known as the Chief of the Air Staff (currently Air Chief Marshal S P Tyagi. Now going to be Fali Homi Major on noon of 31 march). The highest rank in the IAF is Marshal of the Air Force, which is conferred by the President of India only in exceptional circumstances. Arjan Singh is the only officer to have achieved this rank (See Field Marshal (India)).

     Officer

    The various ranks of personnel within the Indian Air Force are listed below in descending order:

    Commands

    The Indian Air Force currently operates seven Commands. Each Command is headed by a Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief in the rank of Air Marshal.

    CommandsHQ LocationCurrent AOC-in-C
    Western Air CommandSubroto Park, New DelhiAir Marshal Avdesh Kumar Singh
    Eastern Air CommandShillong, MeghalayaAir Marshal Fali Homi Major
    Central Air CommandAllahabad, Uttar PradeshAir Marshal P V Naik
    Southern Air CommandThiruvananthapuram, KeralaAir Marshal Sharad Yeshwant Savur
    South Western Air CommandGandhinagar, GujaratAir Marshal P K Mehra
    Training CommandBangalore, KarnatakaAir Marshal G S Chaudhary
    Maintenance CommandNagpur, MaharashtraAir Marshal KS Chaturvedi

    Air superiority aircraft

    The Sukhoi Su-30MKI (MKI: 'Multifunctional Commercial - Indian') is the IAF's prime air superiority combat aircraft. The Su-30K variant was first acquired in 1996. In October 2004, the IAF signed a multi-billion US$ contract with Sukhoi according to which Hindustan Aeronautics Limited was given the license to manufacture 140+ Su-30MKI's with full technology transfer. HAL plans to manufacture about 15 of these aircraft annually. The twin seater, multi-role fighter has a maximum speed of 2500 km/h (Mach 2.35) and has a service ceiling of 17,500 metres. The aircraft with a normal fuel load of 5270 kg can travel up to 1900 miles and can carry 8,000 kg of external armament.On February 8 2007 India requested 40 additional Su-30,s
    Multi role combat aircraft

    These are aircraft for strike, offensive support and air defence purposes. The IAF currently possesses several multi-role fighter jets that perform these functions. Single-seater Mirage 2000 and MiG-29 serve both strike and defense squadrons. The MiG-29 (fulcrum) has a top speed of 2445 km/h (Mach 2.3) and is armed with a 30 mm cannon along with R-60 & R-27 R missiles. Capable of flying at 2500 km/h (Mach 2.3), the Mirage 2000 is the IAF's prime ground-attack fighter jet. This aircraft can carry a wide range of weaponry including two 30 mm integral cannons, two Matra super 530D medium-range missiles and two R550 Magic close combat missiles. 175+ multi-role MiG-21 (Fishbed) combat aircraft have been serving the IAF for the past two decades. The air force plans to eventually replace MiG-21s with the indigenously-built LCA HAL Tejas by about 2010.

    Strike, attack and offensive support aircraft

    Squadrons of Jaguar IS, MiG-27 and MiG-23 aircraft serve as the IAF's primary strike force. The twin-engine Jaguar IB, with a top speed of Mach 1.3, is capable of carrying nuclear warheads. The IAF currently possess 100 Jaguar IS and 8 maritime strike Jaguar IM aircraft. The single-seater MiG-27 carries one GSh-6-30 six barrelled 30 mm cannon, 4000 kg of general purpose ordnance, SPPU-22 and SPPU-6 gun pods, and various guided air-to-surface missiles

    Reconnaissance aircraft

    Besides various unmanned aircraft for reconnaissance. The IAF used to operate a fleet of MiG-25 (Foxbat) R, U reconnaissance aircraft till 2006. The high-speed interceptor aircraft carried four R-40 (AA-6 'Acrid') air-to-air missiles, two R-23 (AA-7 'Apex') and four R-60 (AA-8 'Aphid') or R-73 (AA-11 'Archer'). The MiG-25, in service since the late 1980s, were decommissioned from service in 2006. In 2003, the IAF bought 6 IL-78 aircraft from Russia. The aircraft's primary role is mid-air re-fueling. Later on, the IAF fitted the aircraft with Israeli IAI Phalcon early warning and communication systems, making the Il-78 capable of carrying out reconnaissance missions

    Unmanned aerial vehicles

    The IAF currently operates IAI Malat-built Searcher MkII and Heron UAVs. IAF units are being provided with these UAVs progressively and projected to boast one of the largest UAV fleets in the world.

    Israel Aircraft Industries and Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE), India's leading unmanned aerial vehicle research agency are also jointly developing three new UAVs.

    HAL Lakshya, indigenously-developed pilotless target aircraft, was inducted into the IAF in July 2005. Israel has also bought a few of the Laksya PTAs. Another UAV, the Nishant Remote Piloted Vehicle (RPV) has also been developed, with an endurance of over 3 hours. It will be inducted into the Indian army by 2007. The 380 kg Nishant UAV does not require a runway to launch, and is launched by rail-launching from a hydro-pneumatic launcher. Launches at a velocity of 45 m/s are carried out in 0.6 seconds with 100 kW power. Another smaller mini-UAV, called Kapothaka is also being developed by Aeronautical Development Aagency. DRDO's Vehicle research Development Establishment (VRDE) also developed a UAV based on the Nishant engine

    Support helicopter

    An important objective of the IAF is to support ground troops by providing air-cover and by transporting men and essential commodities across the battlefield. The list of helicopters currently in service with the IAF:

    On Oct. 15, 2006, India agreed to acquire 80 Mi-17 helicopters from Russia in a deal worth approximately US$662 million dollars

    Training aircraft

    The Indian Air Force currently operates more than 175 MiG-21 aircraft. Nearly 50 of these are the older Type-77 variant (MiG-21FL) which are used for operational training. The IAF initially planned to replace the MiG-21 fleet with indigenously-built HAL Tejas aircraft by 2006. However, the target could not be met due to developmental delays and a U.S. sanction, following the Pokhran tests, which blocked the delivery of GE F404 engines- a crucial component of the aircraft.

    In 2003, the IAF placed an order for 66 Hawk Mk 132 Advanced Jet Trainers in a deal worth over 1 billion GBP. The supply of these advanced trainer aircraft will bring to an end the use of the MiG-21 as a training jet. India also manufactures less-sophisticated HAL HJT-16 Kiran and this aircraft will be replaced with the advanced HJT-36. IAF uses HPT-32 Deepak for basic training

    Future Aircraft

    The Indian Air Force currently operates more than 175 MiG-21 aircraft. Due to its aging equipment, several MiG-21s used in training roles have crashed over the past six years, killing over 50 IAF pilots. The IAF initially planned to replace the MiG-21 fleet with indigenously-built HAL Tejas aircraft by 2006. However, the target could not be met due to developmental delays and a US sanction, following the Pokhran-II nuclear tests, which blocked the delivery of GE F404 engines - a crucial component of the aircraft.

    Eager to end its dependence on the MiG-21s, the IAF announced that it intended to purchase 126 aircraft worth over US$9 billion in 2006.[4] The air force sent a Request of Information (RoI) for the following aircraft: Russian MiG-29 M2, French Mirage 2000-5Mk2 and Rafale, European Eurofighter Typhoon, Swedish Gripen and the US F-16C. Besides the F-16Cs, the US has also offered the sale of F-16 Block 70 and F/A-18E/F Super Hornet combat aircraft[5]. However, the IAF seemed inclined towards purchasing the MiG-35 (MiG-29OVT). In 2005 it planned to purchase 12 Mirage 2000-5 from Qatar but Doha ceased negotiations with New Delhi for the sale of the aircraft claiming the bid quoted by India was too low. IAF has placed an order for 29 upgraded versions of indigenously-manufactured Jaguar IM strike aircraft.

    Experts estimate that for India to exert influence over South Asia and the Indian Ocean region, it would require at least 60 squadrons of aircraft performing multi-role combat, deep penetration strike, air superiority, air defence, reconnaissance and electronic warfare tasks. However, the IAF presently operates only 42 squadrons, making the acquisition of these, and other aircraft all the more vital. In November 2005, the Indian Defence Ministry decided to purchase 200 Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft instead of the initial proposal of 126 aircraft, opening the door for more than one supplier. The value of the original contract was 6 Billion USD; the revised plan brings the total value of the contract to 11 billion USD. The new aircraft will not only increase IAF fleet but would also replace aging Jaguars, MiG-23s and MiG-27s.

    It is reported that most IAF officers favour the MiG-35 and the Mirage 2000-9 over the F-16s and F/A-18 Hornets. MiG and Dassault have historically been reliable suppliers in terms of transfers of technology, licensed production in India, personnel training, supply of spare parts, maintenance and upgrading. IAF pilots and technicians are familiar with earlier aircraft from MiG and Dassault and would need minimal retraining. Infrastructural and logistical support for maintenance and spares would also be easier for these aircraft compared to the unfamiliar Gripens, F-16s and F/A-18s. Moreover, many analysts feel that the US, whose unpredictable foreign policy might clamp sanctions at any time, cannot be a reliable supplier.[6]

    Apart from the 200 multi-role combat aircraft and 120+ Light Combat Aircraft, the Indian Air Force was recently given a clearance by the Indian Ministry of Defence to purchase 80+ combat helicopters, six to eight air-refuelling planes and some additional medium-range transport aircraft. India is considering the purchase of 10 to 15 C-130J Super Hercules aircraft.

    Missile systems

    Besides conducting air-based warfare, Indian Air Force also bears the responsibility of protecting Indian skies making anti-aircraft and surface-to-air missiles an important component of the IAF. The most notable missile systems under the IAF are Prithvi 2 ballistic missiles and the SAM 3 Pechora air defence system. The IAF also operates several OSA-AK Air Defence batteries for airdefence of airfields, in addition to several flights using the SA-16 Igla MANPADS missiles.

    The IAF and the Indian Army are currently developing Akash and Trishul surface-to-air missiles as a part of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program. The Indian Air Force will introduce 18 SPYDER air defence systems


    Feb. 18th, 2007 @ 03:56 pm
    » Henry Hyde

    Henry John Hyde (born April 18, 1924), American politician, was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives since 1975, representing the 6th District of Illinois. Representative Hyde retired in 2006. He was former chairman of the Judiciary Committee and was currently chairman of the House International Relations Committee, which deals with foreign policy.

    Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
    from Illinois's 6th district
    In office